A Parent’s Guide to Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is often described as natural, but that doesn’t mean it always comes naturally. For many parents, the early days are a mix of learning, adjusting, and figuring out what works for them and the baby. During this time, it’s completely normal to have questions about latch (how your baby attaches to the breast), milk supply, feeding frequency, pumping, or whether what you’re experiencing is typical.

For context, studies show that most parents encounter at least one breastfeeding challenge in the first weeks postpartum, and many benefit from clear, supportive guidance.1 The good news is that decades of research give us a strong understanding of how breastfeeding works and what helps families thrive. Human milk changes from hour to hour to meet an infant’s needs, feeding patterns evolve as babies grow, and many early hurdles can be eased with simple adjustments or timely support. Whether you’re exclusively breastfeeding, pumping, combination feeding, or still deciding what fits your family, having accurate, science-backed information can make the process feel more manageable.

In this guide, we’ll walk through the essentials of breastfeeding and pumping, including positioning, milk stages, feeding patterns, safe milk storage, and common challenges — as well as when to seek additional support.

In the first days and weeks, you and your baby are both learning how to breastfeed. While every family eventually finds its own rhythm, a few core principles can make feeding more comfortable and efficient from the start. You don’t have to sit upright in a chair to breastfeed — many people find “laid-back” or reclined positions more comfortable, especially during early recovery after childbirth. In any position, your baby needs a secure latch so they can remove milk effectively and avoid nipple discomfort.

Common positions include:2

Laid-back position

You lean back comfortably with pillows supporting your body. Your baby lies tummy-down against your chest, and gravity helps keep them close. This position often uses your baby’s natural feeding reflexes and can feel particularly comfortable during the early days.

Cradle hold

Your baby lies across your front with their head resting in the crook of your arm and their body fully facing you. This is a classic position once feeding feels more familiar, offering a relaxed, natural feel for many parents.

Cross-cradle hold

Similar to the cradle hold, but you support your baby’s head and neck with the hand opposite the breast they’re feeding from. This gives you more control when guiding your baby to the breast and is often recommended when you’re learning latch.

Football (clutch) hold

Your baby is tucked along your side under your arm, with their legs pointing toward your back. This position keeps pressure off the abdomen after a cesarean birth and can feel more comfortable for parents with larger breasts or smaller babies.

Side-lying position

You and your baby lie on your sides facing each other. This position allows you to rest while feeding and is often useful for night feedings once you feel confident about safe positioning.

Getting into a good position

No matter which position you use, a few simple cues can support a deep latch — helping your baby remove milk effectively and protecting your nipples from pain.3

In any position, these cues usually help:

• Tummy-to-tummy: Your baby’s body faces yours, not the ceiling.
• Straight alignment: Their head, neck, and torso stay in a straight line.
• Nose-to-nipple: Starting with your baby’s nose level with your nipple encourages them to open wide.

These small adjustments create a better angle for swallowing and make it easier for your baby to take a deeper mouthful of breast.

Helping your baby latch

While every feeding looks a little different, many lactation consultants rely on a few core steps:4

Once your baby starts feeding, you may notice several cues that the latch is working well. Their mouth is usually wide with the lips rolled outward, and their chin rests firmly against your breast. You might hear a steady rhythm of sucking and swallowing without clicking sounds, and the sensation should feel like gentle tugging rather than sharp or persistent pain. When your baby finishes and releases the breast, your nipple should look round and evenly shaped, not pinched, creased, or flattened.

If feeding continues to be painful or your nipples look pinched or creased after feeds, it’s a good idea to ask a lactation consultant, a nurse, or your baby’s clinician to observe a feeding. Sometimes small adjustments can make a meaningful difference.

Human milk changes over the first days, weeks, and months after birth. These shifts happen gradually, but lactation experts generally describe three overlapping stages:

• Colostrum
• Transitional milk
• Mature milk

Each stage plays a distinct role in supporting your baby’s growth and immune system.

Colostrum

Colostrum is the thick, golden milk your body produces during pregnancy and in the first few days after birth. Although it appears in small amounts, it’s highly concentrated. Research suggests newborns typically take in about 2–5mL per feed on the first day, increasing to roughly 25–30mL (about 0.8–1oz) by the end of the third day when feeding is effective.5 6

This small volume matches your baby’s tiny stomach capacity and is easier to digest. Colostrum is sometimes called “liquid gold” because it contains:7 8

Colostrum also acts as a gentle natural laxative. It helps newborns pass meconium (their first stool), which clears excess bilirubin (the pigment that can cause newborn jaundice, a common yellowing of the skin and eyes) from the body.

Even brief exposure to colostrum provides meaningful early protection.

Transitional milk

Around days 3–5, as milk volume increases and your breasts feel fuller, colostrum blends gradually into transitional milk. This stage usually lasts through the second week postpartum, though timing varies.9

Transitional milk contains more fat and lactose, supporting rapid growth and brain development. Babies often become stronger, more coordinated feeders during this period, and you may notice heavier diapers and more predictable feeding patterns.

Mature milk

By 2–4 weeks postpartum, milk is generally considered mature.6 8 Although the composition stabilizes somewhat, it still adapts to your baby’s needs — changing across a feeding, throughout the day, and as your baby grows.

Mature milk provides a balanced mix of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, along with immune factors, hormones, enzymes, and antioxidants that continue supporting development. Its flexibility is one of its strengths: it can shift in response to your baby’s age, appetite, and even illness.

Global health organizations recommend exclusive breastfeeding for about the first six months, followed by continued breastfeeding with complementary foods through at least 1–2 years and beyond, as long as it works for both parent and child.10 11

Every baby is different. Rather than fitting your newborn into a strict schedule, most experts now recommend responsive, or “on-demand,” feeding — offering the breast whenever your baby shows early signs of hunger, day or night.12 13

That said, research and public health guidance give helpful ranges for what’s typical at different ages.

The first days (birth to about three days)

In the first days after birth, your baby’s stomach is still very small, and the amounts of colostrum you produce are designed to match their needs. Most healthy newborns breastfeed at least 8–12 times in 24 hours, often every 1–3 hours from the start of one feed to the start of the next.12 14 15 These frequent sessions help your baby practice sucking and swallowing while also signaling your body to begin building a full milk supply.

Some babies naturally wake and cue to feed often. Others may be sleepier, especially after a long labor, exposure to certain medications, or if they’re experiencing jaundice. If your newborn isn’t waking to feed at least eight times per day in the early days, many clinicians suggest gently waking them to eat. You can try:

• Unswaddling and placing them skin-to-skin
• Changing their diaper
• Gently rubbing their back or feet

If your baby is very difficult to wake, not latching well, or showing signs of persistent sleepiness, it’s important to contact your healthcare provider promptly.13 16 They can check for issues such as jaundice, low blood sugar, or dehydration and help you plan next steps.

Most healthy newborns who are breastfeeding effectively don’t require supplemental formula in the first days of life. When medical concerns arise about intake, professional guidelines recommend first evaluating latch, feeding effectiveness, and weight before deciding whether to supplement.11

First weeks and months

As your baby’s stomach grows and your milk volume increases, you’ll likely notice that feedings gradually become more efficient. Babies begin to take in more milk per session, and the stretches between feeds often start to lengthen — especially overnight. Even so, many exclusively breastfed infants still feed about 8–12 times in 24 hours, usually every 2–4 hours, and patterns can vary widely.14 17 Some feeds may be brief “snacks,” while others are longer, more settled sessions. It’s also normal for babies to cluster several feeds close together in the evening or during growth spurts, a pattern known as cluster feeding.18

While the clock can provide helpful context, the most reliable guide is your baby’s behavior. Babies communicate hunger and fullness through early cues, which become easier to recognize over time.19

Common early hunger cues:

• Becoming more alert or active
• Moving the head from side to side (“rooting”)
• Bringing hands to the mouth
• Lip-smacking or sucking on hands
• Nuzzling against the chest

Hunger cues tend to appear before crying, which is a late sign of hunger. Feeding earlier often leads to calmer, more effective sessions.

Common fullness cues

• Slowing or pausing sucking
• Relaxed, open hands and body
• Turning away from the breast
• Falling asleep at the breast with relaxed body tone
• Appearing content or drowsy after a feed

If your baby is gaining weight appropriately, producing expected numbers of wet and dirty diapers, and generally seems content after most feeds, those are reassuring signs that they’re taking in enough milk.13 15

While many families exclusively breastfeed, others supplement with formula at certain points in the first year.13 If you’re thinking about adjusting your feeding plan, your baby’s doctor or a lactation consultant can help you choose an approach that supports healthy growth and fits your family’s needs.

6–12 months

From around six months, most babies start complementary solid foods while continuing to breastfeed.10 11

During this stage:

• Breastfeeding often continues on demand, but frequency may slowly decrease as solid intake increases.
• Some babies still breastfeed around 6–8 times per day; others gradually drop to fewer sessions while taking in more solids.
• It’s generally helpful to breastfeed before offering solids, especially early on, so breast milk remains the primary source of nutrition and hydration.

Major health organizations emphasize that breast milk remains the most important source of nutrition during the first year, even after solids begin.10 11

12–24 months and beyond

As your child moves into the second year of life, breastfeeding patterns tend to become highly individualized. Some toddlers nurse mainly upon waking or before sleep, while others continue to breastfeed several times a day — especially for comfort, connection, or during periods of illness or rapid development. As long as your child is growing well and eating a balanced variety of solid foods, there’s usually a broad range of normal feeding frequency during this stage.

Global and national health organizations support continuing to breastfeed through the second year of life and beyond, for as long as it feels right for both parent and child.10 11

When to seek help with feeding frequency or intake

While variation is normal, it’s important to contact your healthcare provider or a lactation consultant promptly if:

• Your newborn regularly breastfeeds fewer than eight times in 24 hours in the early days.
• You rarely hear or see swallowing during feeds.
• Your baby seems consistently fussy or unsatisfied after most feedings.
• There are too few wet or dirty diapers for your baby’s age, or your baby is not regaining birth weight on the expected timeline. Your baby’s clinician can help interpret diaper patterns and weight checks, which often shift quickly in the first weeks.
• Your baby is unusually sleepy, difficult to wake, or has a yellow tinge to the skin or eyes.

These signs don’t automatically mean you’re not making enough milk, but they do warrant a closer look at latch, feeding effectiveness, and overall health.12 15

Many parents pump at some point during breastfeeding, whether to build a small supply for later, share feeding responsibilities, or manage time away from their baby. You can remove milk by hand or with a manual or electric pump (a process often called “expressing milk”), and both approaches can work well when used correctly.17 Before you begin, wash your hands with soap and water; if soap and water aren’t available, a hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol is acceptable.20

If you’re using a pump:

• Inspect all parts that come in contact with milk to ensure they’re clean and dry.
• Replace tubing immediately if you see mold or condensation that won’t clear.
• If you’re using a shared or hospital-grade pump, clean the control panel, dials, and countertop with a disinfectant wipe before use.

Many parents find pumping more comfortable after a brief period of breast massage or a few minutes of skin-to-skin contact with their baby, which can help trigger the let-down reflex — the release of milk from the breast. Using a properly sized flange (the funnel-shaped part of the pump that fits over your nipple) can also make pumping more comfortable and efficient.

How often to pump

Frequency depends on your goals. If you’re exclusively pumping or replacing nursing sessions, most lactation consultants recommend pumping about as often as a newborn feeds — typically 8–12 times per 24 hours in the early weeks to help build supply.21 If you only pump occasionally, expressing milk once or twice per day may be enough to collect what you need.

Safely storing expressed milk preserves its nutrients and protects your baby from bacterial growth. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides time frames depending on where the milk is kept.20

• Room temperature (up to 77°F / 25°C): Freshly expressed milk is safe for up to four hours.
• Refrigerator (40°F / 4°C): Fresh milk may be stored for up to four days.
• Freezer (0°F / –18°C or colder): Use within six months for best quality; up to 12 months is still considered acceptable.

These ranges assume the milk was handled cleanly, kept in appropriate containers, and stored consistently at the recommended temperatures.

Storing and labeling expressed milk

After you’ve expressed your milk, proper storage helps protect its quality and keep it safe for your baby. Most families use either breast milk storage bags or clean, food-grade glass or plastic containers with tight-fitting lids. If you plan to freeze milk, leaving about an inch of space at the top of the container can prevent cracking, since breast milk expands as it freezes. It’s also helpful to store milk toward the back of the refrigerator or freezer, where temperatures stay most consistent.

Clear labeling makes it easier to track what to use first, especially if you store multiple small amounts over several days. And because freshly expressed milk keeps its quality best when used promptly, many clinicians recommend freezing it right away if you don’t expect to use it within four days.20

Here are a few practical tips to keep in mind:

• Use purpose-made breast milk storage bags or clean, food-grade containers.
• Label each container with the date expressed (and your baby’s name if it’s being sent to childcare).
• Store milk in the back of the fridge or freezer to avoid temperature fluctuations.
• Promptly freeze fresh milk if you won’t use it within four days.
• During travel, milk can stay in an insulated cooler with ice packs for up to 24 hours; once you arrive, refrigerate or freeze it.

Thawing and warming breast milk safely helps preserve its nutrients and reduces the risk of uneven heating. Most families follow a simple “first in, first out” approach, using the oldest stored milk first to maintain quality over time.

Frozen milk can be thawed gently using a few safe methods:

• In the refrigerator overnight
• By placing the sealed container in a bowl of warm water
• Under lukewarm running water

Never microwave breast milk. Microwaves can create hot spots that may burn your baby and can break down important immune components.20

Once completely thawed, breast milk can stay in the refrigerator for up to 24 hours. The clock starts when the last ice crystal disappears, not when you remove it from the freezer.20 If the milk is warmed or reaches room temperature, it should be used within two hours. Previously frozen milk should not be refrozen.

Feeding expressed milk

Breast milk does not need to be warmed before feeding — many babies take it cold or at room temperature. If you prefer to warm it, keep the container sealed and warm it gradually by placing it in a bowl of warm water or holding it under warm running water. Avoid heating milk directly on the stove or in the microwave.

Before feeding, swirl (do not shake) the milk to gently mix any separated fat. If your baby leaves milk in the bottle, that portion should be used within two hours and then discarded.20

Cleaning pump parts and feeding items

Proper cleaning helps prevent contamination and keeps your pumping equipment functioning well. Pump parts, bottles, valves, and nipples should be washed in hot, soapy water after each use and allowed to air-dry completely on a clean surface. Families with very young infants (under three months), preterm babies, or babies with weakened immune systems may also need to sanitize feeding items regularly. Several safe methods are commonly recommended:

• Boiling, which involves placing clean, disassembled items in boiling water for several minutes
• Steam sanitizing using a microwave or plug-in steam system designed for infant feeding items
• Bleach solution sanitizing — used only when other methods aren’t available, following the CDC’s very dilute ratio of 2tsp of unscented bleach per gallon (16 cups) of water.

Full step-by-step instructions for each method are available in the current CDC guidelines, which detail how long to heat items, how to handle them afterward, and when sanitizing is necessary.

Breastfeeding is a learned skill for both parent and baby, and it’s normal to encounter bumps along the way. Many common challenges can be improved with small adjustments, reassurance, and timely support. Here are several issues families often face in the early weeks.

Most breastfeeding challenges respond well to early troubleshooting, and many families notice significant improvement once latch, positioning, and feeding patterns become more comfortable. If symptoms worsen, your baby is not feeding well, or you develop fever or severe pain, contacting a lactation consultant or your healthcare clinician is the safest next step.

Some babies have oral tissue that restricts movement of the tongue, upper lip, or inner cheeks. These tissues, called frenula, are present in everyone, but when they’re unusually tight or limit mobility, they may interfere with latch or milk transfer. This restriction is often referred to as a tongue tie (ankyloglossia), lip tie, or buccal tie.25 26

For example, a tongue tie may keep the tongue attached close to the floor of the mouth, and a lip tie may make it harder for the upper lip to lift and flare outward during a latch. These limitations can affect how well a baby seals on the breast and maintains suction.

Not all visible frenula cause feeding problems, and not all feeding problems are caused by ties. Assessment focuses on function — how well the baby can move the tongue and maintain an effective latch — rather than appearance alone.

When movement is restricted, it can lead to:

• Difficulty achieving or maintaining a deep latch
• Clicking sounds during feeds or frequent loss of suction
• Maternal nipple pain or damage
• Poor milk transfer, which can affect infant weight gain or parental supply over time

These signs can overlap with many other breastfeeding challenges, so a careful evaluation is essential.25

Common signs parents or clinicians may notice

Tongue, lip, or buccal ties can present differently from baby to baby. Some feeding concerns are subtle, while others are more obvious, and many overlap with unrelated breastfeeding challenges. The following patterns are examples of what parents or clinicians may observe when restricted oral tissue is affecting latch or milk transfer.

Diagnosis and treatment

Only trained clinicians — such as pediatricians, pediatric dentists, or International Board Certified Lactation Consultants (IBCLCs) — can determine whether a tie is truly affecting feeding. Evaluation usually includes observing a feeding, assessing tongue mobility, and considering the baby’s weight patterns.

When a significant functional restriction is present, some families explore a frenotomy, a brief procedure that releases the tight tissue.27 Evidence suggests that frenotomy may improve nipple pain and latch in well-selected cases, though outcomes vary and not all ties require intervention.28 Skilled lactation support is important both before and after the procedure.

When to seek help

If the latch remains painful, your baby struggles to stay on the breast, or feeding concerns persist despite troubleshooting, it's a good idea to consult an IBCLC or your baby’s clinician. They can assess whether oral restrictions or other factors may be contributing.

Breastfeeding is safe and recommended for the vast majority of parents and babies. However, a few specific medical situations require temporarily or permanently avoiding breastfeeding or providing expressed milk.

In most situations, breastfeeding remains safe, even during common illnesses, while taking many prescribed medications, or after most routine procedures. When questions arise, talking with your clinician, pharmacist, or lactation consultant can help determine the safest approach for both parent and baby.

Breastfeeding can be deeply rewarding, but it often takes practice, patience, and the right support. Feeding your baby is a learning process, and every family’s path looks a little different. Whether you’re navigating latch challenges, figuring out pumping routines, or simply adjusting to life with a new baby, know that you don’t have to do it alone.

Pediatricians, lactation consultants, nurses, and community support groups can help answer questions, troubleshoot concerns, and celebrate progress with you. If breastfeeding is going well, they’ll help you keep that momentum; if it’s been difficult, they can help you find strategies that make feeding more comfortable and sustainable.

No matter how you feed your baby — at the breast, with expressed milk, with formula, or some combination — what matters most is that your child is nourished and you feel supported. With good information and a team to lean on, most families find a rhythm that works for them.